The Use of Molecular Tools in Marine Organism Study

Discuss about the Genetic Studies for Environmental Microbiology.

Genetics refers to the study of genes referred to as the functional units of heredity, heredity and genetic variations in living organisms. Specifically genetics is concerned with finding out resemblances and differences among related organism that are as a result of environmental and genes interaction. On the other hand marine systems refer to open coastal habitats which are in most cases are unprotected and exposed to wave action, ocean currents and tidal fluctuations. These systems have no vegetation (Fanning and Mcconney, 2011).

Genetics studies have been a plied in a wide range of areas. Molecular genetics is a branch of genetics that studies the structure of genes at molecular levels. It is also concerned with the study of the function of genes at this level. The use of molecular tools has significantly helped to provide new information on biodiversity among marine organism. Such studies have also played a role in conservation efforts of the systems by providing crucial information that on the need and importance of having in place conservation strategies for these systems. It has also significantly helped in the identification of species especially because of mutations that make species differ from one another. Through data generated from the study of organism’s chromosomes and gene expression, new information has been has been generated on heredity and variations of genes. Genetic studies have also helped in providing knowledge on genetic mutations among marine organisms. The use of microsatellites revealed that there has been significant differentiation of marine fishes. Mitochondria DNA system has also enabled detection of variations among some marine fishes. This has been the case because of historical isolation in populations (Moraitou and Kiortsis, 2007).

Through the application of genetic studies has generated new data on how marine protected area networks can be effectively designed and evaluated .It has also enabled the use of exclusion tests and percentage analyses for effective management of fisheries. Besides it has also availed crucial information on stock demarcation and re-establishment. All these have been critical for the effective management of marine systems. Additionally, genetic studies have created public awareness on the need of owning unique genetic lineages for the purpose of enabling conservation of these genetic organisms. It has also made known the need for incorporating research on genetics into management policy (Van open & Lough, 2009).

Data generated from genetics studies besides helping in creating insights on marine systems conservation and management as identified by (Laurent et al, 2014) in their Pacific Ocean research. They also used the data from the research to address a couple of other factors related to marine species such as their distribution patterns, evolution and biodiversity. Their study came up with a conclusion that genetic studies can be used to assess historical conditions through the use of retrospective monitoring method. (Laurent et al, 2014).

Genetic Studies and Fisheries Management

Distribution is the spatial arrangement of biological taxon .Information on distribution can help in learning about factors that determine the distribution of species by providing knowhow and enabling monitoring of population metrics which have made it possible to understand evolutionary and demographic processes.

Marine ecosystems and in particular near shore regions such as estuaries, coral reefs and coastal areas are undergoing crises globally due to changes in environment which puts a lot of physiological stress on the resident organisms. Genomics stands to provide detailed view of physiological diversity and function and mechanistic insight into how organisms respond to the environment. Any environmental change will lead to an adaptive change on the organism (Moraitou & Kiortsis, 2007).

There are various examples on how genetic studies have provided insight into marine systems. In yeast, DNA micro-array based gene expression pro-filling has revealed a complex series of gene up and down regulation that indicates mechanistic under pining on how cells respond to physiological stress. Data on gene expression can be grouped into groups of gene ontology reflecting the categories of cell functions (Taffi et.al, 2014)

A study on marine systems in the analysis of the metagenomic data set from the Global Ocean Survey (GOS) expedition has been of great significance. The PCR approach used in this study revealed the same phylogenetic patterns as those of clone library studies. This is an indication that PCR approach does not impose major biases on the exploration of DNA concerning the environment. There was high protistan diversity in the less than 0.8 µm size fraction. Particularly, sequences from radiolarians and ciliates indicate that most of the DNA comes from extra-cellular material from the larger cells. A comparison between the phylogenetic patterns from rDNA and reverse transcribed rRNA18S clone libraries taken from the Mediterranean Sea revealed key differences with taxa like pelagophytes that were detected only in the 18S rRNA. This study indicates differences in marine systems biodiversity. The studies have shaped understanding of the marine microbial food webs as well as eukaryotes evolution (Chauhan & Varma, 2009)

A study by (Thommen et al, 2015) puts together modeling and molecular experiments for studying how quality of light affects the circadian clock of the phytoplanktonic unicellular green alga Ostreococcus tauri. The circadian clock shows a range of cellular functions in multifarious organisms. Light is a major input for the clock monitoring. Marine organisms may experience changes in light spectrum due to their distance from the surface of the sea. So the study seeks to establish whether a two component signaling system sensing green and blue light through RhodHK and LOVHK respectively synchronizes the TOC1-CCA1 central circadian oscillator on a day or night basis. The results indicate that O.tauri`s clock can be reset by both the blue and green light in independent ways (Thommen et al, 2015).

Genetics Studies and Marine Protected Area Networks

(Taffi et al, 2014) described a computational framework for analyzing how bio remediation affects the ecosystem based on the combination of food web bio-accumulation models and the metabolic models of degrading bacteria. Bio accumulation of polychlorinated Biphenyls(PCBs) in the Adriatic food web and metabolism model of Pseudomonas putida KT2440(iJN746) extended with the microbial aerobic pathways of PCBs degradation  was used as a case study. Techniques such as Flux balance analysis and linear inverse Modeling were used in the analysis of ecosystems for evaluation of bio-remediation strategies. This has helped in offering new insights into the multiple level interplay among ecosystems and marine systems (Heine, 2008)

Some of the most common stories that result from the use of DNA micro-arrays in marine ecology are on gene expression studies which identify the genes involved in mutual relationships between cnidarians and inter-cellular algar-symbiots.The results of this study indicate the power of genomics (Rodriguez-Lanetty et al.2006). A study conducted recently on the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima is a good example of the utility of the genomics approach. The researchers demonstrated that the mechanisms involved in the maintenance of and regulation of the relationship is more complex than it was thought before (Rodriguez-Lanetty et al.2006). DNA micro-array based transcriptome analysis, 28 host genes were shown to be varying in the symbiotic state. This 28 functional group analysis indicated that the results were under scoring that symbiosis had a more global effect on the metabolism of the host instead of revealing a suite of genes unique to the symbiotic state (Rodriguez Lanetty et.al.2006). Genes involved in lipid metabolism changed in a predictable system. This study provided unexpected insight into how apoptosis and cell cycle genes are involved in maintaining the symbiosis by controlling the life of the host cell. This was very new evidence in the cnidarian system (Rodriguez Lanetty et.al.2006).

There are various studies that have been conducted to access the interaction between the host invertebrate and the algal symbiont (National Research council (U.S.), & United States. ,1970).Given the recent findings concerning changes in the strain of Symbiodinium that correlated with the environment conditions, there is also evidence that the flexibility of the host symbiont combination can be subject to regulations of the environmental conditions. This research work will eventually help in shaping up the marine systems. Marine genetic studies show significant differentiation in terms of genes among populations living in different oceans and different parts of the oceans (Taffi et.al, 2014)

Distribution, Evolution, and Biodiversity of Marine Species

Quantifying compositions and configurations of landscapes helps in the discovery of temporal and environmental factors associated with local adaptation and different demographic histories. Correlations between geographic features and allele frequencies of specific loci can reveal candidate adaptive loci. Spatial variations between landscapes variables and genome variations can also alter the overall structuring of genetic variation (Olsson, 2007).

Many populations genomic studies includes the goals of loci examination under variable selection as well as the marine context offers various advantages for empirical investigations on how selection operates in natural populations. This aspect is common with coastlines with diverse environmental factors such as intertidal zonations, embayment and freshwater outflows. Landscape genetic and genomics researches have gone on for some time now. However, uptake of spatially explicit seascape information for genetic studies has been particularly unimpressive. The considerations of undertaking seascape genetic research are high because of the reliance on tools from spatial ecology (Olsson, 2007).

Conclusion

Genetic research in the marine systems sector has helped in understanding the marine life to a very great extent. Genetic studies in marine have helped scientists to identify responses of various marine creatures on stress. The changes in environmental conditions in the sea and oceans have also had a great effect on the marine life and through genetic studies, these effects have been revealed. As a result of this research, all the stakeholders are able to participate in conservation and protection of marine ecosystems.

References:

Iwai, S., Fujiwara, K. and Tamura, T., 2016. Maintenance of algal endosymbionts in Paramecium bursaria: a simple model based on population dynamics. Environmental microbiology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26625979

Heine, H. (2008). Innate immunity of plants, animals, and humans. Berlin, Springer. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181602383

Dubinsky, Z., & Stambler, N. (2010). Coral reefs: an ecosystem in transition. Dordrecht, Springer. https://site.ebrary.com/id/10434916.

Chauhan, A. K., & Varma, A. (2009). A textbook of molecular biotechnology. New Delhi, I.K. International Pub. House https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/310400941

Fanning, L., Mahon, R., & Mcconney, P. (2011). Towards marine ecosystem-based management in the wider Caribbean. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840488833

Moraitou-APostolopoulou, M., & Kiortsis, V. (2007). Mediterranean marine ecosystems. New York, Plenum Press. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/11621127.html.

National Research council (U.S.), & United States. (1970). Marine ecological research for the Central American interoceanic canal. Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5714734 

Olsson, J. (2007). Genetic research on commercially exploited fish species in Nordic countries. Kbh, Nordisk Ministerra?d.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04209.x/abstract

Rodriguez-Lanetty, M., Phillips, W.S. and Weis, V.M., 2006. Transcriptome analysis of a cnidarian–dinoflagellate mutualism reveals complex modulation of host gene expression. Bmc Genomics, 7(1), p.23. https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2164-

Taffi, M., Paoletti, N., Angione, C., Pucciarelli, S., Marini, M. and Liò, P., 2014. Bioremediation in marine ecosystems: a computational study combining ecological modeling and flux balance analysis. Frontiers in genetics, 5, p.319. https://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2014.00319

Thommen, D.S., Schreiner, J., Müller, P., Herzig, P., Roller, A., Belousov, A., Umana, P., Pisa, P., Klein, C., Bacac, M. and Fischer, O.S., 2015. Progression of lung cancer is associated with increased dysfunction of T cells defined by co-expression of multiple inhibitory receptors. Cancer immunology research, pp.canimm-0097. https://cancerimmunolres.aacrjournals.org/content/canimm/early/2015/08/07/2326-6066.CIR-15-0097.full.pdf

Van oppen, M. J. H., & Lough, J. M. (2009). Coral bleaching: patterns, processes, causes, and consequences. Berlin, Springer. https://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/long/112/8/2307