F= ke where e= extension and k= stiffness of material
From the definition of elastic modulus above, E= ?/? only for isotropic materials But ?=e/L such that e=?/L…..(i)
From F=ke ; e= F/k …..(ii)
Equating the two equations: ?/L= F/k ?=FL/k…(iii)
Alternatively, from the definition of elastic modulus: E= ?/?
And we also note that : ?=F/A Therefore, E= F/A/?=F/A? Which implies that : F= A?E And from Hooke’s law: F=Ke
Equating these two equations: eK= A?E Hence K= AE?/e….(iv)
Equations (iv) and (iii) should be equivalent as far as relations between k and E is concerned hence: K= AE?/e or ?=FL/K
Now, cross sectional area of an elliptical solid/surface is given by: A= πab where a=semi- minor axis radius and b=semi-major axis of radius
a= 0.75/2 and b= 2/2=1
A= 3.142 x0.75/2x 1= 1.17825mm2 ?max= 6.5/1.17825×10-6 = 5.517MPa
-collagen
-Ligament (c)(i) Collagen
Normally they exhibit a decreasing percentage recovery with increasing duration of tensile loading. At different time cycles, the recorded percent recovery often deviates with a certain margin.
-Difficulty in maintaining visibility during tests as the materials lack stability unlike in engineering materials where most of them are solidly stable. There will be handling challenges from specimen preparation to finally acquiring the results.
-Variation in results is too wide for the same specimen under test. Due to the stability challenges, results obtainable from the same specimen under similar testing conditions may greatly vary.
-Besides, there is a challenge of deviating from the reality of biological structures. However, modern methods are integrating the aspect of ensuring that the testing environment mimics the physiological realities of these biological materials.
– Reviewing the experimental methodology. For example, for cartilage, the common method used is indentation. This should be extended further such that there are more in-situ testing modes so that it becomes more physiological.
Why? It is a viscoelastic and non-linearly behaving material such that tensile testing only may not yield sufficient results;
-Due to its complex structure, the tests required must be in tandem with the structural components hence incorporation of immerging technology for real-time tests in all directions (A,
-Also test must be performed in all directions possible as the material is also anisotropic, that is, it exhibits different properties for different orientations or directions in the material structure.
-Additionally compression tests may also be included as the real environment constitutes these load structures.
(b) –Strength of fibres (tensile)
– Strain values (within elastic region)
Checking control on B2, strain field is non-uniform along the parallel fibres (J. D., U. and H.T. G, W., 2018).
(b) However, in some structures due to different structural components, proteoglycans may not necessarily play a significant role (Lewis, Gray, Blount, MacConell, Wiater, Bilezilkjian, 2000)
The meniscus is a musculoskeletal tissue that resides in the knee joint between th+ fe moral condyles and the proxim al tibia (e.g., the tibial plateau) medial and lateral components. The m+niscus is nearly 72 % water and along with GAGs
(a) –Compression loading
-Torsional loading
-Tensile loading
– Shear loading
A, K. and A, L. (2016). Mechanical Behaviour of Skin: A Review. Journal of Material Science & Engineering, 5(4).
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Bilandzic M, Wang Y, Ahmed N, Luwor RB, Zhu HJ, Findlay JK, et al. (2014). Betaglycan blocks metastatic behaviors in human granulosa cell tumors by suppressing NFkappaB-mediated induction of MMP2. Cancer Lett 354:107–14.
Boivin WA, Shackleford M, Hoek AV, Zhao H, Hackett TL, Knight DA, et al.(2012). Granzyme B cleaves decorin, biglycan and soluble betaglycan, releasing active transforming growth factor- β1. PLoS One 7:e33163.
Fictiv.com. (2018). Engineering Fundamentals Refresh: Strength vs Stiffness vs Hardness | Fictiv – Hardware Guide. [online] Available at: https://www.fictiv.com/hwg/design/engineering- fundamentals-refresh-strength-vs-stiffness-vs-hardness [Accessed 27 Nov. 2018].
Fish R. (2000). Sinovial joints, PhD Thesis. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Kingston, Canada. Available at: https://www.teachingbiomed.man.ac.uk/student_ projects/2000/mmmr7rjf/articula.htm 5. Akeson WH, Woo SL-Y, Amiel D,
Hawkins D. (2001). Tissue mechanics. Human performance laboratory, University of California, Davis. Lecture available at: https://dahweb.engr.ucdavis.edu/dahweb/126site/126site.
D., U. and H.T. G, W. (2018). The effect of mechanical stress on soft and hard tissue repair; a review. [online] Available at: https://www.jprasurg.com/article/0007-1226(88)90049-5/pdf[Accessed 28 Nov. 2018].
Kasza, K., Nakamura, F., Hu, S., Kollmannsberger, P., Bonakdar, N., Fabry, B., Stossel, T., Wang, N. and Weitz, D. (2009). Filamin A Is Essential for Active Cell Stiffening but not Passive Stiffening under External Force. Biophysical Journal, 96(10), pp.4326-4335.
Kirkbride KC, Townsend TA, Bruinsma MW, Barnett JV, Blobe GC. (2008). Bone morphogenetic proteins signal through the transforming growth factor-β type III receptor. J Biol Chem 283:7628–37.
Lewis KA, Gray PC, Blount AL, MacConell LA, Wiater E, Bilezilkjian LM, et al. (2000). Betaglycan binds inhibin and can mediate functional antagonism of activin signalling. Nature 404:411–4.
Mujika, F. (2007). On the effect of shear and local deformation in three-point bending tests. Polymer Testing, 26(7), pp.869-877.
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(2002). Cell prestress. I. Stiffness and prestress are closely associated in adherent contractile cells. American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology, 282(3), pp.C606-C616.
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