What is Cognitive Development?

Describe about the Cognitive Development of Psychology?

Cognitive development is the method of acquire aptitude and ever more difficult thinking and crisis solve capability from childhood to adulthood. Formerly thought that the infant lack of capability to believe or from the compound thoughts and remain without cognition until they learn verbal communication (Khalid, 2015). Cognitive development is the process of how an individual perceives, think and gain accepting of his or her world from first to last the interaction of inherent and learned factors. The areas were cognitive development focus on, that is information dispensation, intellectual, way of thinking language expansion and remembrance.

A most important argument in cognitive development has been “nature and nurture” that is the query if cognitive development is primarily resolute by an individual’s inborn qualities or by their personal understanding. On the other hand, it is now acknowledged by the expert that this is a fake dichotomy:  there is overpowering proof from biological and behavioral science that from the initial points in expansion, genetic material interacts with actions and experience in the environment (Magid, Sheskin and Schulz, 2015).

One of the core systems of cognition recognized by psychologists are the following:

Biological theories – In this field of environmental science and psychology, the assumption of development is used to improved and recognize how biological influence on enlargement network with the experience to shape in increasing traits (Pulsford, Lindenmayer and Driscoll, 2014). When this theory is applied to people the essential thought is that there is bias and constraint on the type of understanding the children easily and obtain during the growth as well as an aptitude to learn evolutionarily book and culturally specified knowledge. David Geary was set up the evolutionary educational psychology in a consequent area and represent to recognize how to evolve knowledge bias interact with the learning of evolutionarily novel information in school (Aguiar and Taylor, 2015).

Behaviorist Perspective – The main conjecture of this approach is that all behavior is cultured and formed by the environment (Robinson, 2014). Moreover, Behaviorist Perspective argues that in organize for psychology is to be scientific and it supposed to be focus on apparent behavior which can be independently measured rather than on things like cognitive process which can only be contingent. In behaviorist perspective there is two kind of conditioning theories that is classical conditioning and operant conditioning, were as classical condition tell us how to study behavior through organization (Duits et al., 2015) and operant condition tell us how the penalty of behavior reinforces (Johnes, 2014).

Piaget’s theory is the opinion that cognitive development occur in a sequence of four separate, worldwide stage and both of this are characterize by more and more complicated and conceptual level of consideration (Magid, Sheskin and Schulz, 2015).  All this stage are occurring in same order and each of them are building on what was learning in the preceding stage (ViederytÄ—, 2014). The following stage is:

1. Sensor motor stage – In this stage infant and toddler are acquiring information all the way through sensory understanding and manipulate matter. Currently in expansion, a child’s intelligence consists of their basic motor and sensory investigation of the world.  Piaget’s supposed that rising is known as objective stability or objective loyalty, and also accepting that objective continue to exist, even when they cannot be seen, and a significant element at this point of expansion (Pulsford, Lindenmayer and Driscoll, 2014).
2. Preoperational stages – In these stage children learn through pretend play but still move violently with reason and pleasing the view point of other people. In this they also move violently through the ideal of reliability (Witt and Helmstaedter, 2015). Example suppose investigator may take a lump of clay and make it into two piece and both piece are equal in nature, they told a kid to choose one of them and here the one piece is shaped like a ball and other piece are shaped like a flat screen, while by choosing between two of them the preoperational will might select the flat one because flat one look like larger in shape (Pulsford, Lindenmayer and Driscoll, 2014).
3. Concrete operational stage – In this stage kid might think in more logical way, and their thinking might be inflexible. They inclined to resist with theoretical and imaginary concept. In this stage kid capacity turn into less self-centered and start to think about how others might feel and believe. In this concrete operational stage they start to recognize how their opinion is exclusive to them and everyone need to shares their feelings, thoughts and opinion.
4. Formal operational stage – This is the last and final stage in Piaget’s theory, which occupy a raise in judgment, the capability to use deductive analysis and also indulgent in conceptual ideas.

1. Schema – it is one of the most important concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Take an example of Christmas festival which include money, winter, gold, Santa etc and other have different schema like holiday, birth of Jesus etc. yes, there is a schema for each and every kind of things like for occupation, events, yourself for others etc (West, 2014).
2. Assimilation – it is a process of incorporate fresh information into a pre-existing plan. Take an example of an old lady, an old lady see a youngster attack another person, she might incorporate “aggression” or “offense into her teenager schema. After that she thinks that the teenager will applied her schema to them, and then it may show prejudice. Here a simple process used as an information which is already fit to pre-existing category (Pulsford, Lindenmayer and Driscoll, 2014).
3. Accommodation – while approaching crossways a new thing for the first time, a child will do an effort and apply an old schema to the objective. Again here they use the same dog example here the child may have four leg in their dog schema and other compare with another animal like cat; cat might look like a dog that is absorption. While saying that this is cat instead of dog than it will be accommodation which is the newly information into another schema (Magid, Sheskin and Schulz, 2015).
4. Adaptation – The two part of adaptation is accommodation and assimilation which refer to the adapting our schemata to make a perfect model of the world we live in. It might be a kind of learning but it is totally opposite to the Behaviorist psychology that I classical and operational conditioning (Pulsford, Lindenmayer and Driscoll, 2014).
5. Equilibrium – In this Piaget recommended that human logically do their best to achieve a cognitive balance, here should be a balance between apply previous knowledge which is assimilation and altering schemata to the explanation for new information which is accommodation. Piaget also recommended that if a child schema is not fit to the reality then it might be a tension in his mind. While balancing accommodation and assimilation then the anxiety might reduce and can be carry on to higher levels of consideration and knowledge which is known as equilibration (Magid, Sheskin and Schulz, 2015).

As we have learnt earlier that cognitive development is the study in psychology and neuroscience which focuses on the development of a child in terms related to processing of information, perceptual skills, conceptual resources, and all aspects which is related to cognitive psychology and development of brain compared to the point of view of an adult (Boom, 2004). Piaget’s theory is the broad study of human intelligence and nature. He believed that childhood plays a vital role in the growth of brain. A child learns by doing things and exploring them. Intellectual development theory focuses on adaptation, perception and manipulating the environment surrounding them. It is also known as the development stage theory. Cognitive development to Piaget was the developmental reorganization of the mental process which results from the environmental experience and biological maturation (Cook-Cottone, 2004). This theory can be more evaluated by stating that the theorist believed that all children build an understanding of the surroundings and then experiences them on their own, and then find out the difference of what they know already and what they discovered. The development is in the center of human where the language is dependent on the understanding and knowledge which is acquired through the cognitive development (Crafter, 2015).

Core Systems of Cognition Recognized by Psychologists

There is another theory on cognitive development given by Lev Vygotsky, who believed that the social community largely influences the thinking process of children. Here, psychological or technical tools are mainly responsible for this. Vygotsky proposed that in order to gain social acquaintance, individual must have to be aware about the way of communication. A small child will learn from their olders, how to communicate with using appropriate languages. As per Vygotsky this can be termed as More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). According to him, MKO can be teachers, older, instructor, parents, professional, etc. which excluded friends, children and computers. Here, mainly “Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) approach has been placed.

According to the first level, that is, Present Level of Development, it can be sent that the child has the capability to do something without taking assistance from any person.  On the other hand, the level 2- or the Potential Level of Development explained that the child can potentially be competent enough to do something in line with the help of teachers and other people (Lao and Kuhn, 2002).

There is a gap between Level 1 and Level 2 which by Vygotsky is described as the Zone of Proximal Development. He assumed that with the help from others a child will be able to potentially gain knowledge which is already held by them. Knowledge must be appropriate enough so that the child can grasp it (Kozulin, 2011). Both the theories, when evaluated and compared, offer extremely influential theories which had a strong impression with respect to the method of teaching children (Levykh, 2008).

Even though there is a rivalry between the two theorists with the competing theories. To evaluate the evidences from the studies of cognitive development and relate findings with it the following table will be of much help. The table shows the contrasts in both the theories:

The contrasts of the two theories are very competing. The theories are challenging broad and complexities of human nature. Now we would look in-depth of both the theories with respect to its findings and its evaluations.

Findings and evaluations of Piaget’s theory:

• Piaget’s theory is based on numerous defined and rigid stages. What is the probability cognitive development will occur mechanically as the theory suggests? A child need to move to the next stage and a switch does not brush whereby moving onto another stage.
• There is contrary evidence which suggests some facts of the study are inaccurate.
• There was criticism that Piaget’s underestimated the ability of the children and infants.
• The procedure used to define the theory was highly criticized pointing that if children are incapable of cognitive functioning or Piaget’s methods were much complicated for a child’s understanding (Saengpun, 2012).
• The theory had a high impact on teaching techniques all over and it stays as one of the vital developmental theories in the education till date.
• The theory gives framework to understand what may happen when children acquire particular cognitive knowledge.

Findings and evaluations of Vygotsky’s theory:

• This theory emphasizes much on the social culture and interaction by which other facets of the development is missed.
• There is no extensive explanation for individual differences and developmental problems.
• The theory has huge implication on education which shows that how MKO’s and adults can engage actively in helping the children reach their full potential.
• According to this theory it is found that children who work together in pairs do better and construct compound ideas than working alone.
• In this theory group learning is initiated with looking into the cognitive development of the individual.

Studies have shown that parents use these theories to decide what to purchase in order to support the growth of their child. In the academic purpose teachers also use these theories to determine which syllabus will be suitable for the students. Recent studies have shown that children having the same grade and being in the same age perform their tasks differently in basic mathematical fluency. The stage of the cognitive development differs from person to person and it affects and impacts on how someone reflects on everything. As this theory of Piaget’s was applauded it was criticized also (Jeltova, 2004). It was found that development do not progress in a smooth way as his theory says. It was found that children are able to learn concepts and has the capability to do complex reasoning that is supposed to be more advanced cases. This theory is of “domain general” which predicts that maturation occurs simultaneously across different domain of knowledge. The theorist in this case did not take into account the changeability in the performance of a child (Shabani, Khatib and Ebadi, 2010).

Piaget’s Theory – Stages and Importance

Vygotsky’s theory is a modern application of “reciprocal teaching” which is used to perk up the ability of the students to learn from the text. According to this theory, the students and the teachers work together in learning the four key elements of questioning, clarifying, summarizing and predicting, by way of which the teacher’s time is lessened. Vygotsky is pertinent to concepts like “apprenticeship” and “scaffolding” where a teacher is an adult who helps to structure and arrange a task. This theory well accepted both by parents and teachers was also criticized. Vygotsky did not obtain equal level of strong scrutiny like Piaget due to the lengthy process. This theory does not provide particular hypothesis making repudiation difficult if not impossible. It was also stated that Vygotsky’s ideas were not culturally widespread but an alternative concepts of scaffolding which was dependent on verbal instruction. This may not be equal in all cultures in the learning process. In some cases practice and observation may be more effective (Spinath and Spinath, 2005

References:

Aguiar, N. and Taylor, M. (2015). Children’s concepts of the social affordances of a virtual dog and a stuffed dog. Cognitive Development.

Boom, J. (2004). Commentary on: Piaget’s stages: the unfinished symphony of cognitive development. New Ideas in Psychology, 22(3), pp.239-247.

Cook-Cottone, C. (2004). Using Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development to Understand the Construction of Healing Narratives. Journal of College Counseling, 7(2), pp.177-186.

Crafter, S. (2015). Cultural psychology and deconstructing developmental psychology. Feminism & Psychology.

Duits, P., Cath, D., Lissek, S., Hox, J., Hamm, A., Engelhard, I., van den Hout, M. and Baas, J. (2015). UPDATED META-ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL FEAR CONDITIONING IN THE ANXIETY DISORDERS. Depression and Anxiety, p.n/a-n/a.

Jeltova, I. (2004). Vygotsky’s Theories: Psychological Tools for Educational Psychologists: A Review of Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, and Miller’s Edited Volume, Vygotsky’s Educational Theory in Cultural Context. j cognit educat psychol, 3(3), pp.351-355.

Johnes, J. (2014). Operational Research in education. European Journal of Operational Research.

Khalid, M. (2015). Educational Theories of Cognitive Development. Journal of Educational and Social Research.

Kozulin, A. (2011). Introduction to Vygotsky’s “The Dynamics of the Schoolchild’s Mental Development in Relation to Teaching and Learning”. J Cognit Educat Psychol, 10(2), pp.195-197.

Lao, J. and Kuhn, D. (2002). Cognitive engagement and attitude development. Cognitive Development, 17(2), pp.1203-1217.

Levykh, M. (2008). THE AFFECTIVE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF VYGOTSKY’S ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT. Educational Theory, 58(1), pp.83-101.

Magid, R., Sheskin, M. and Schulz, L. (2015). Imagination and the generation of new ideas. Cognitive Development.

Pulsford, S., Lindenmayer, D. and Driscoll, D. (2014). A succession of theories: purging redundancy from disturbance theory. Biol Rev, p.n/a-n/a.

Robinson, D. (2014). Psychology as its history: A word more. Theory & Psychology, 24(5), pp.723-725.

Saengpun, J. (2012). Development of a Child’s Semiotic Activity with the Help of Psychological Tools: A Vygotsky’s Cultural-Historical Perspective. Psychology, 03(05), pp.424-427.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M. and Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers’ Professional Development. English Language Teaching, 3(4).

Spinath, B. and Spinath, F. (2005). Development of self-perceived ability in elementary school: the role of parents’ perceptions, teacher evaluations, and intelligence. Cognitive Development, 20(2), pp.190-204.

ViederytÄ—, R. (2014). Cluster formation patterns: the general indicators, criteria, stages and gestation phases overview. Management Theory and Studies for Rural Business and Infrastructure Development, 36(3), pp.688-700.

West, D. (2014). Piaget’s system of spatial logic: The semiosis of index. Semiotica, 2014(202).

Witt, J. and Helmstaedter, C. (2015). Cognition in the early stages of adult epilepsy. Seizure, 26, pp.65-68.